doi: 10.1111/1751-7915.13288, Bombelli, P., Howe, C. J., and Bertocchini, F. (2017). 60, 244248. 98, 42234232. Accelerated photodegradation of poly (vinyl chloride). H. E.-D. Saleh, London: InTech. Pollut. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. Degradation and stabilization of polyurethane elastomers, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2018.12.003. . Bioresour. Degradation and defect evolution in GaN-based UV LEDs under 3 MeV proton irradiation were throughly investigated in this work. These polymers are susceptible to hydrolytic attack of e.g., ester or amide bonds (Muller et al., 2001). Rev. Environ. 53, 52565265. A novel FTIR-ATR spectroscopy based technique for the estimation of low-density polyethylene biodegradation. R. Soc. doi: 10.1002/pola.10906, Browne, M. A., Crump, P., Niven, S. J., Teuten, E., Tonkin, A., Galloway, T., et al. Petroleum-derived (petro-)plastics have many desirable characteristics. Science 175, 12401241. Appl. Sci. Environ. Ingenieur Technik 74, 14961500. Int. and Chaetomium sp. A new biocatalyst for production of optically pure aryl ep-oxides by styrene monooxygenase from Pseudomonas fluorescens ST. Appl. 64, 493501. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.12.029, Iwamoto, A., and Tokiwa, Y. Microbiol. Biodeterior. Stab. Benzotriazoles are used mainly in polystyrene and PVC, but can also be used in acrylics and polycarbonates, and in polyurethanes and unsaturated polyesters. WebIn-house Engineers Cutting Edge Fabrication Facility Fast Turnarounds Affordable Solutions Contact Our Team Today! 60, 471480. Stab. doi: 10.1080/07388550500346359, Zimmermann, W., and Billig, S. (2011). 3:e1700782. Hazard Mater. The identities of enzymes involved in the degradation petro-polymers like PE and PP, and the mechanisms of these enzyme-substrate interactions, are largely unknown. (2017) revealed that extracellular mechanisms leading to enzymatic oxidation and hydrolysis of chains of PE polymers are also significant They documented oligomers production with maximum 55 carbons (molar mass of 105850 g/mol) from PE films that adsorbed by bacteria after 240 days of incubation. Waste Manage. An overview on biodegradation of polystyrene and modified polystyrene: the microbial approach. (2014) isolated LDPE-degrading bacterial strains, Enterobacter asburiae YT1 and Bacillus sp. (2015). Biodegradation of polyethylene mulching films by a co-culture of Acinetobacter sp. Microbial degradation of (C14C) polystyrene and 1,3-diphenylbutane. Eng. Polym. (2018). Polym. Agric. Very few studies of PP biodegradation have been reported (Table 2). The role of the copper-binding enzyme, laccase, in the biodegradation of polyethylene by the actinomycete Rhodococcus ruber. doi: 10.1021/es2031505, Ho, B. T., Roberts, T. K., and Lucas, S. (2018). Int. 101, 72587264. Soc. Environ. Biodegradation of polystyrene wastes in yellow mealworms (larvae of Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus): factors affecting biodegradation rates and the ability of polystyrene-fed larvae to complete their life cycle. Li et al. Polym. Stab. doi: 10.1016/S0189-7241(15)30078-3, Ojeda, T. (2013). doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.05.137, Fett, W. F., Wijey, C., Moreau, R. A., and Osman, S. F. (1999). Microplastics in the marine environment. 88, 189198. Focussing on the components, we explore strategies for the enhancement of polyurethane stability through chemistry and engineering. Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) is a class of essential commercial elastomers widely used in varying industries [1, 2], due to excellent elasticity, strength, and resistance to abrasion.Nevertheless, TPU suffers certain weakness, especially high fire hazard; once ignited, it emits a large amount of heat due to its cellular structure, Degradation and Recyclability of poly (ethylene terephthalate), in Polyester, ed. Polym. 78, 85318539. doi: 10.1016/j.ibiod.2013.04.002, Ahmed, T., Shahid, M., Azeem, F., Rasul, I., Shah, A. (2009). The biotechnological potential of marine bacteria in the novel lineage of Pseudomonas pertucinogena. Res. Polym. 88, 8390. 200, 7778. J. Polym. 10:489. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00489, Yang, J., Yang, Y., Wu, W. M., Zhao, J., and Jiang, L. (2014). Purification and characterization of a soluble polyurethane degrading enzyme from Comamonas acidovorans. Total Environ. In case of P. putida U and P. aeruginosa, the Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ)-dependent alcohol dehydrogenases involved are the PedE and PedH, and the ExaA (formerly QedH) enzymes (Arias et al., 2008). Biodegradation is considered as the core subject, but data on the action of water, oxygen, ozone, and UV/Vis light is also included.

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Photo-degradation is a process whereby the polymer chains in the product break down due to exposure to UV radiation.

Polym. The polyurethane samples were located in the glass aquarium, with dimensions of 40 40 20 cm, equipped with an aeration pump. Cutinases have also been reported to hydrolyse aliphatic polyesters e.g., PCL (Kleeberg et al., 2005; Baker et al., 2012) as well as aliphatic aromatic co-polyesters such as PET (Herrero Acero et al., 2011; Ribitsch et al., 2012a; Roth et al., 2014; Wei et al., 2014b; Gamerith et al., 2017) and polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) (Eberl et al., 2009). Biodegrad. doi: 10.1002/biot.201000391, Song, Y., Qiu, R., Hu, J., Li, X., Zhang, X., Chen, Y., et al. (2018). Polym. Chem. Download : Download high-res image (150KB)Download : Download full-size image. doi: 10.1007/s00253-012-4058-4, Kijchavengkul, T., and Auras, R. (2008). Certainly, this was an advanced UV degradation step, forming phenyl formate carboxylic acid groups in which the phenyl groups were in resonance and consequently caused intensification of the reduced absorbance. (2017). Sci. Firstly, a surface-binding domain promotes Fungi isolated from soil such as those from Aureobasidium pullulans, Cladosporium sp., Curvularia senegalensis, and Fusarium solani were reported to degrade polyesterpolyurethane (Crabbe et al., 1994). (2020a). The depolymerization stopped when gut microbes were suppressed with antibiotic gentamicin, indicating gut-microbial dependence, similar to observations recorded for PS degradation by T. molitor larvae. Environ. The degradation of the commercially available standard PET film (pure and amorphous PET) at 50C was found significantly lower (approximately 5%), however, the degradation increased with high temperatures (55, 60, and 65C) to more than 30% (Oda et al., 2018). Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) production from engineered Ralstonia eutropha using synthetic and anaerobically digested food waste derived volatile fatty acids. In particular, numerous studies have focused on the photolytic degradation of PUs under UV radiation because photo-oxidation and other dissociation reactions by UV light are believed to be responsible for the yellowing of PU coatings . Contam. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. Stab. Polym. Nat. Formation of new groups (carbonyl and hydroxyl) and a decrease in viscosity have been observed during the degradation process (Iwamoto and Tokiwa, 1994; Sameh et al., 2006). In latter approach, cutinases (from T. cellulosilytica and T. fusca) were fused to binding domains like polyhydroxyalkanoate binding modules (PBM) (Ribitsch et al., 2013), carbohydrate binding modules (CBM) (Zhang et al., 2010; Ribitsch et al., 2013) and hydrophobins (Ribitsch et al., 2015). 65, 757767. 1. 31, 10941099. Enzymatic surface hydrolysis of poly(ethylene terephthalate) and bis(benzoyloxyethyl)terephthalate by lipase and cutinase in the presence of surface active molecules. Therefore, these elastomeric systems are used in a diverse range of indoor, outdoor, underwater and biomedical applications. Figure 4. Biodegrad. PETase, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) hydrolase or PET-digesting enzyme; BHET, bis(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalic acid; MHET, mono(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalic acid; TPA, terephthalic acid; EG, Ethylene glycol. doi: 10.1146/annurev.pp.32.060181.002543, Kundungal, H., Gangarapu, M., Sarangapani, S., Patchaiyappan, A., and Devipriya, S. P. (2019). 26, 14001405. Hydrolysis of PET and bis-(benzoyloxyethyl) terephthalate with a new polyesterase from Penicillium citrinum. Polym. Microbial degradation of high-molecular-weight alkanes. (2011). A novel Ca2+-activated, thermostabilized polyesterase capable of hydrolyzing polyethylene terephthalate from Saccharomonospora viridis AHK 190. 37, 44944499. 42, 76967701. Biodeterior. PET consists of aromatic polyesters with high glass transition temperatures (Tg) of approximately 7580C in air. J. Hygiene Environ. Sci. 26, 1850918519. Biotechnol. In the presence of UV radiation (200 h, > 300 nm), the synthesized aromatic polyurethane undergoes photodegradation with gradual change of its colour.

(2005). Research focusing on digestive enzyme(s) in plastic-degrading invertebrates and their gut microbes could also lead to novel approach for plastic degradation, especially for persistent non-hydrolyzable polymers. (2020b). doi: 10.3109/10242422.2012.644435, Ribitsch, D., Herrero Acero, E., Przylucka, A., Zitzenbacher, S., Marold, A., Schwab, H., et al. Appl. Biodeterior. Degrad. Effect of compatibiliser on the biodegradation and mechanical properties of high-content starch/low-density polyethylene blends. (2010).

FEBS J. (2009). Stab. 48, 197207. Int. 64, 17311735. Plastics Europe. 3 Biotech. 143, 207212. Biodegradation and mineralization of polystyrene by plastic-eating mealworms: Part 2. (2019) reported an improved binding and depolymerization of polyester-polyurethane nanoparticles by fusion of the anchor peptide, Tachystatin A2 (TA2) to the cutinase from Thermomonospora curvata (Tcur1278). A new esterase from Thermobifida halotolerans hydrolyses polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polylactic acid (PLA). (2020) isolated two LDPE-degrading strains from the gut of T. molitor larvae, Acinetobacter sp. Yang et al. Characterization of an isolate that uses vinyl chloride as a growth substrate under aerobic conditions. View All Commercially Available Polymer Grades with Good UV Resistance! 123, 428435. 133, 110. Bull. Biodegradation of Polycaprolactone (PCL) blended PP has also been demonstrated using lipase since lipase is well known to degrade the ester linkages of PCL (Weiland et al., 1995). However, the most commonly used plastics are still synthetic polymers derived from petrochemical hydrocarbons (Geyer et al., 2017). doi: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2010.12.004, Ojeda, T., Freitas, A., Dalmolin, E., Pizzol, M. D., Vignol, L., Melnik, J., et al. Toxicol. Purification and characterization of twopolyurethanase enzymes from Pseudomonas chlororaphis. Shah, A. doi: 10.1271/bbb.65.2265, Kawai, F., Kawase, T., Shiono, T., Urakawa, H., Sukigara, S., Tu, C., et al. Appl. 95, 15421550. Biotechnol. doi: 10.1016/S0964-8305(02)00051-3, Howard, G. T., and Blake, R. C. (1998). Prog. Ethylene glycol. (2007) first observed that some insects are able to chew and penetrate PE packaging. Yang et al. PUs also finds use in adhesives, insulation, coats, tires, sponges, paints, and fibers (Howard, 2002; Zheng et al., 2005; Shah et al., 2008). 84:e02773-17. Biodegrad. Peng et al. A recently described flexible polyurethane electrolyte was artificially weathered at 25/50 C and 50% r.h. in air and at 25 C in a dry nitrogen atmosphere, each with and without UV irradiation. Despite the fact that these plastics represent non-natural chemicals, several microorganisms capable of metabolizing these polymers have been identified in recent years. Both strains were able to metabolize EG and produced glycolic acid and glyoxylic acid (Figure 5). (1980). Yoon, M. G., Jeon, J. H., and Kim, M. N. (2012).

J. Bioremed.

doi: 10.1016/S0922-338X(97)82013-2, Nechwatal, A., Blokesch, A., Nicolai, M., Krieg, M., Kolbe, A., Wolf, M., et al. A pure strain of P. aeruginosa degraded the modified PS (Shimpi et al., 2012), and Curvularia species was investigated for degradation of atactic PS, without any pretreatment (Motta et al., 2009). doi: 10.1021/acs.est.5b01090, Brandon, A. M., Gao, S. H., Tian, R., Ning, D., Yang, S. S., Zhou, J., et al. Disclaimer: all data and information obtained via Microbial degradation and deterioration of polyethylene. There are approximately 21 million tons of PS produced worldwide in 2013 (Yang et al., 2015a, b). Bumpus, J. New Biotechnol.
J. Biol. Tech. Fiber Sci. 50, 3340. Res. Rev. Degradation of polyurethane samples was also performed in the laboratory in a liquid medium containing sea water with NaN 3 (0.195 g NaN 3 /1000cm 3). strain TY2 was isolated from the gut of T. molitor larvae (Yang et al., 2015b) while Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain DSM 50071 (Kim et al., 2020) was isolated from Z. atratus. 62, 15961605. Polymer chains are broken by enzymes secreted by the microbes, and the hydrolysis products are taken up and metabolized. 26, 246265. (2020). Technol. Stab. 292, 51285143. Technol. Crit. doi: 10.1021/bm400140u, Riudavets, J., Salas, I., and Pons, M. J. Stabilizers for protecting polymers against ozonolytic degradation are called antiozonants. J. Biotechnol. Microbial degradation of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) (adapted from Austin et al., 2018). Biodeterior. In P. putida strain JM37, the activity of two additional pathways, namely, Gcl and GlcB, leads to rapid metabolism of EG without accumulation of the intermediates and/or oxalic acid (Muckschel et al., 2012). Blending of the plastics with certain types of natural polymers, such as starch, has been shown to increase their biodegradation (Otake et al., 1995; Zheng et al., 2005; Ammala et al., 2011; Karimi and Biria, 2019). However, substitution of methyl in place of hydrogen in the -position makes it more resistant to microbial attack (Zuchowska et al., 1998, 1999). Eng. Microbiol. ZM and DL contributed to certain sections of the manuscript, as well as overall editing and proof-reading.

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